Cosmetic surgery - Revision history

Sarfipour: /* Principle of Prohibition (Asalat al-Hazr) */

2026-03-07T14:01:24Z

Principle of Prohibition (Asalat al-Hazr)

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	Naser Makarem Shirazi, pointing out that it might be thought that cosmetic surgery is problematic based on the impermissibility of making dispositions in God's property, has criticized this view. According to this view, on one hand, cosmetic surgery is a form of disposition of the body—which is God's property—and on the other hand, no permission has been given for this type of disposition; therefore, cosmetic surgery is not permissible.<ref>Makarem Shirazi, Kitab al-Nikah, vol. 2, p. 132.</ref>		Naser Makarem Shirazi, pointing out that it might be thought that cosmetic surgery is problematic based on the impermissibility of making dispositions in God's property, has criticized this view. According to this view, on one hand, cosmetic surgery is a form of disposition of the body—which is God's property—and on the other hand, no permission has been given for this type of disposition; therefore, cosmetic surgery is not permissible.<ref>Makarem Shirazi, Kitab al-Nikah, vol. 2, p. 132.</ref>

	According to Makarem Shirazi, firstly, considering [[Quran 2:29]],~~{{Note\|"He is the One who created for you all that is on the earth."}}~~ God has created all beings on earth for humanity, and humans can make dispositions in them, unless there is a religious prohibition against such disposition.<ref>Makarem Shirazi, Kitab al-Nikah, vol. 2, p. 132.</ref> Secondly, even assuming that everything, including the human body, is God's property and one should not dispose of it without His permission, permission for this disposition has been granted by the Lawgiver according to the religious rule "Everything is lawful for you until you know for certain that it is forbidden."<ref>Kulayni, Al-Kafi, vol. 10, p. 542.</ref><ref>Makarem Shirazi, Kitab al-Nikah, vol. 2, p. 132; Rajaei al-Musawi, Minhaj al-Usul, vol. 2, p. 37.</ref> According to this rule, since we have no knowledge of the prohibition of cosmetic surgery, this act is ruled as permissible and lawful.		According to Makarem Shirazi, firstly, considering [[Quran 2:29]], God has created all beings on earth for humanity, and humans can make dispositions in them, unless there is a religious prohibition against such disposition.<ref>Makarem Shirazi, Kitab al-Nikah, vol. 2, p. 132.</ref> Secondly, even assuming that everything, including the human body, is God's property and one should not dispose of it without His permission, permission for this disposition has been granted by the Lawgiver according to the religious rule "Everything is lawful for you until you know for certain that it is forbidden."<ref>Kulayni, Al-Kafi, vol. 10, p. 542.</ref><ref>Makarem Shirazi, Kitab al-Nikah, vol. 2, p. 132; Rajaei al-Musawi, Minhaj al-Usul, vol. 2, p. 37.</ref> According to this rule, since we have no knowledge of the prohibition of cosmetic surgery, this act is ruled as permissible and lawful.

	==Cosmetic Surgery from the Perspective of a Secondary Ruling==		==Cosmetic Surgery from the Perspective of a Secondary Ruling==

Sarfipour: /* Rule of Authority (Qa'ida al-Taslit) */

2026-03-07T13:59:20Z

Rule of Authority (Qa'ida al-Taslit)

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	====Rule of Authority (Qa'ida al-Taslit)====		====Rule of Authority (Qa'ida al-Taslit)====
	According to the [[Rule of Authority]] (the validity of which jurists have established based on the Quran, narrations, the practice of the wise, and consensus), every owner has complete authority over their property,<ref>Mohaqqeq Damad, Qawa'id-i Fiqh, vol. 1, p. 227.</ref> and some jurists like [[~~Imam~~ Khomeini]] and [[Mohammad Momen Qomi\|Momen Qomi]] have extended this rule to rights and persons, and have also included a person's authority over themselves and their body parts under this rule.<ref>Khomeini, Kitab al-Bay', vol. 1, pp. 41-42; Momen Qomi, Kalimat-i Sadidah, pp. 163-164.</ref> Based on this, in the absence of a religious prohibition, a person can make dispositions regarding their body and undergo cosmetic surgery for themselves.<ref>Safati and Kazemi, "Cosmetic Surgery from the Perspective of Jurisprudence," pp. 27-28.</ref>		According to the [[Rule of Authority]] (the validity of which jurists have established based on the Quran, narrations, the practice of the wise, and consensus), every owner has complete authority over their property,<ref>Mohaqqeq Damad, Qawa'id-i Fiqh, vol. 1, p. 227.</ref> and some jurists like [[Sayyid Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini]] and [[Mohammad Momen Qomi\|Momen Qomi]] have extended this rule to rights and persons, and have also included a person's authority over themselves and their body parts under this rule.<ref>Khomeini, Kitab al-Bay', vol. 1, pp. 41-42; Momen Qomi, Kalimat-i Sadidah, pp. 163-164.</ref> Based on this, in the absence of a religious prohibition, a person can make dispositions regarding their body and undergo cosmetic surgery for themselves.<ref>Safati and Kazemi, "Cosmetic Surgery from the Perspective of Jurisprudence," pp. 27-28.</ref>

	===The Theory of Prohibition as a Primary Ruling===		===The Theory of Prohibition as a Primary Ruling===

Sarfipour at 13:58, 7 March 2026

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Sarfipour at 13:58, 7 March 2026

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	'''Cosmetic surgery''' is one of the contemporary topics in medical jurisprudence. Its religious rulings have been discussed in some contemporary jurisprudential books and in response to istifta'at (religious inquiries). Most contemporary jurists believe that if cosmetic surgery has a rational purpose, it is permissible to perform it. Based on this, [[Hossein-Ali Montazeri]] and [[Mohammad Fazel Lankarani]] have considered the provision of beauty to be among the rational purposes. In contrast, [[Mohammad-Taqi Bahjat]] and [[Mohammad-Ali Alavi Gorgani]] have not considered cosmetic surgery permissible if it is solely for the purpose of increasing beauty.		'''Cosmetic surgery''' (in Persian: [[:fa:جراحی_زیبایی\|جراحی زیبایی]]) is one of the contemporary topics in medical jurisprudence. Its religious rulings have been discussed in some contemporary jurisprudential books and in response to istifta'at (religious inquiries). Most contemporary jurists believe that if cosmetic surgery has a rational purpose, it is permissible to perform it. Based on this, [[Hossein-Ali Montazeri]] and [[Mohammad Fazel Lankarani]] have considered the provision of beauty to be among the rational purposes. In contrast, [[Mohammad-Taqi Bahjat]] and [[Mohammad-Ali Alavi Gorgani]] have not considered cosmetic surgery permissible if it is solely for the purpose of increasing beauty.

	From the perspective of jurists (fuqaha), if cosmetic surgery is solely for the purpose of gaining beauty, it is not permissible if it involves looking at and touching a non-mahram. However, if it has a therapeutic aspect and its performance is necessary, and there is no doctor of the same gender available, there is no issue.		From the perspective of jurists (fuqaha), if cosmetic surgery is solely for the purpose of gaining beauty, it is not permissible if it involves looking at and touching a non-mahram. However, if it has a therapeutic aspect and its performance is necessary, and there is no doctor of the same gender available, there is no issue.

Sarfipour at 09:52, 16 December 2025

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	[[fa:جراحی زیبایی]]		[[fa:جراحی زیبایی]]
	{{End}}		{{End}}
			[[Category:Contemporary Jurisprudence Articles]]

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|author = Hamzeh Ahmadi
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}}

'''Cosmetic surgery''' is one of the contemporary topics in medical jurisprudence. Its religious rulings have been discussed in some contemporary jurisprudential books and in response to *istifta'at* (religious inquiries). Most contemporary jurists believe that if cosmetic surgery has a rational purpose, it is permissible to perform it. Based on this, [[Hossein-Ali Montazeri]] and [[Mohammad Fazel Lankarani]] have considered the provision of beauty to be among the rational purposes. In contrast, [[Mohammad-Taqi Bahjat]] and [[Mohammad-Ali Alavi Gorgani]] have not considered cosmetic surgery permissible if it is solely for the purpose of increasing beauty.

From the perspective of jurists (*fuqaha*), if cosmetic surgery is solely for the purpose of gaining beauty, it is not permissible if it involves looking at and touching a non-*mahram*. However, if it has a therapeutic aspect and its performance is necessary, and there is no doctor of the same gender available, there is no issue.

In stating the ruling on the permissibility of cosmetic surgery, rules such as [[Asalat al-Ibahah]] and the [[Rule of Authority]] have been cited. However, opponents of cosmetic surgery, relying on [[Quran 4:119]], consider cosmetic surgery to be forbidden (*haram*). All contemporary Shia *fuqaha* agree that if cosmetic surgery involves looking at and touching a non-*mahram*, it is not permissible; although jurists have considered cosmetic surgery by a non-*mahram* doctor permissible under certain conditions. In addition, if cosmetic surgery leads to problems in performing obligatory acts such as *wudu* and *ghusl*, it should be avoided.

==Explanation of the Issue and Its Position==
Cosmetic surgery (in Arabic: عملیة التجمیل) is the act of beautifying, correcting, and improving the appearance of the organs of the face or body of a human,<ref>Islamic Jurisprudence Encyclopedia Institute, *Farhang-e Fiqh-e Farsi*, vol. 3, p. 69.</ref> and removing and eliminating excess parts of the body, such as extra fat, as well as hair transplantation and similar cases.<ref>Al-Mahamid, "Idhn al-Zawj fi al-'Amaliyyat al-Tajmiliyya al-Tahsiniyya," p. 315.</ref>

Cosmetic surgery is divided into three categories based on its purposes and goals:
{{column|2}}
# Functional reconstructive surgery, to correct a defect in an organ that has a vital necessity.
# Form reconstructive surgery, solely to correct or beautify a part of the body that has an unnatural or defective appearance.
# Pure cosmetic surgery, to enhance and increase beauty, or sometimes for a non-objective (psychological) necessity such as increasing self-confidence or "body dysmorphic disorder" and the resulting depression.<ref>Kalharnia Golkar et al., "A Jurisprudential-Legal Study of the Foundations and Scope of Prescribing Cosmetic and Reconstructive Surgeries," p. 79; Masri, *Mülahazat-i Shar'i va Qanuni-yi A'mal-i Jarrahi-yi Ziba'i*, p. 23.</ref>
{{end}}
===Position of the Issue in Contemporary Jurisprudence===
Cosmetic surgery is one of the emerging branches of medicine, and jurists have discussed its rulings in some contemporary jurisprudential books and in response to *istifta'at*.<ref>Islamic Jurisprudence Encyclopedia Institute, *Farhang-e Fiqh-e Farsi*, vol. 3, p. 69.</ref> There is no separate chapter dedicated to cosmetic surgery in jurisprudential texts, but related topics are raised in several chapters such as marriage (*nikah*),<ref>Safati and Kazemi, "Cosmetic Surgery from the Perspective of Jurisprudence," p. 22.</ref> or in discussions of ablution (*wudu* and *ghusl*) concerning the operated organ,<ref>Tabrizi, *Sirat al-Najat fi Ajwibat al-Istifta'at*, vol. 7, p. 218.</ref> and discussions related to the rulings of looking at and touching a non-*mahram*.<ref>Makarem Shirazi, *Istifta'at-i Jadid*, vol. 1, p. 479.</ref>

===History and Background===
Cosmetic surgery in its modern form was not discussed in past narrative and jurisprudential books and is an emerging medical issue that has come under the thought and study of contemporary jurists to examine its religious ruling. However, Ibn Sa'd in the book *Al-Tabaqat al-Kubra* narrates a tradition according to which the Prophet (s) advised a person named 'Arfajah ibn As'ad ibn Karb al-'Utaridi, who had lost his nose in one of the wars of the pre-Islamic era and had made a nose of silver for himself that gave off a bad smell, to make and use a nose of gold.<ref>Ibn Sa'd, *Al-Tabaqat al-Kubra*, vol. 7, p. 32.</ref>

==Cosmetic Surgery from the Perspective of a Primary Ruling==
===The Theory of Permissibility as a Primary Ruling===
According to most contemporary Shia jurists, cosmetic surgery in itself and regardless of other titles is permissible.<ref>For example, see Khoei and Tabrizi, *Ahkam-i Jami'-i Masa'il-i Pizishki*, p. 368; Montazeri, *Risala-yi Istifta'at*, vol. 2, p. 352; Safi Golpayegani, *Istifta'at-i Pizishki*, p. 265; Khamenei, *Ajwibat al-Istifta'at*, vol. 2, p. 78; Rouhani, *Istifta'at*, vol. 4, p. 234.</ref> However, jurists such as [[Sayyid Mohammad Reza Golpayegani|Golpayegani]],<ref>Golpayegani, *Irshad al-Sa'il*, p. 17.</ref> [[Hossein-Ali Montazeri|Montazeri]],<ref>Montazeri, *Ahkam-i Pizishki*, p. 138.</ref> [[Mohammad Fazel Lankarani|Fazel Lankarani]],<ref>Lankarani, *Ahkam-i Bimaran va Pizishkan*, p. 134.</ref> [[Lotfollah Safi Golpayegani|Safi Golpayegani]],<ref>Safi Golpayegani, *Istifta'at-i Pizishki*, pp. 265-269.</ref> Sane'i<ref>Sane'i, *Istifta'at-i Pizishki*, p. 45.</ref> and [[Hossein Nouri Hamedani|Nouri Hamedani]]<ref>Nouri Hamedani, *Hizar va Yik Mas'ala*, vol. 1, p. 241.</ref> are of the opinion that cosmetic surgery is permissible provided it is for rational purposes. Montazeri, Fazel Lankarani, and [[Yousef Sane'i|Sane'i]] have considered the provision of beauty to be among the rational purposes.<ref>Montazeri, *Ahkam-i Pizishki*, p. 138; Fazel Lankarani, *Ahkam-i Bimaran va Pizishkan*, p. 134; Sane'i, *Istifta'at-i Pizishki*, p. 45.</ref> Therefore, if a person undergoes cosmetic surgery for fame-seeking and showing off or due to rivalry, their action will not be covered by the ruling of permissibility.<ref>Safati and Kazemi, "Cosmetic Surgery from the Perspective of Jurisprudence," p. 29.</ref> The permissibility of cosmetic surgery has been documented based on the following evidence:<ref>Safati and Kazemi, "Cosmetic Surgery from the Perspective of Jurisprudence," p. 26.</ref>

====Principle of Permissibility (Asalat al-Ibahah)====
If a jurist doubts whether something is permissible (*halal*) or forbidden (*haram*), and after searching, finds no religious evidence for its prohibition, they assume the principle of permissibility (*ibahah*) or non-prohibition.<ref>Valaei, *Farhang-i Tashrihi-yi Istilahat-i Usul*, p. 72.</ref> Therefore, since there is no religious evidence such as a verse, narration, rational proof, or consensus on the prohibition of cosmetic surgery, the principle is its permissibility and non-prohibition.

====Rule of Authority (Qa'ida al-Taslit)====
According to the [[Rule of Authority]] (the validity of which jurists have established based on the Quran, narrations, the practice of the wise, and consensus), every owner has complete authority over their property,<ref>Mohaqqeq Damad, *Qawa'id-i Fiqh*, vol. 1, p. 227.</ref> and some jurists like [[Imam Khomeini]] and [[Mohammad Momen Qomi|Momen Qomi]] have extended this rule to rights and persons, and have also included a person's authority over themselves and their body parts under this rule.<ref>Khomeini, *Kitab al-Bay'*, vol. 1, pp. 41-42; Momen Qomi, *Kalimat-i Sadidah*, pp. 163-164.</ref> Based on this, in the absence of a religious prohibition, a person can make dispositions regarding their body and undergo cosmetic surgery for themselves.<ref>Safati and Kazemi, "Cosmetic Surgery from the Perspective of Jurisprudence," pp. 27-28.</ref>

===The Theory of Prohibition as a Primary Ruling===
[[Mohammad-Taqi Bahjat]], a contemporary jurist, is of the opinion that if cosmetic surgery is solely for beauty, it is an obligatory precaution to refrain from it.<ref>Qasemi, *Danshnamah-i Fiqh-i Pizishki*, vol. 2, p. 195.</ref> Mohammad-Ali Alavi Gorgani, in response to an inquiry about the religious ruling on rhinoplasty for the purpose of beauty, has also rejected its permissibility entirely.<ref>Alavi Gorgani, *Istifta'at-i Pizishki*, p. 117.</ref> The reason cited for opposition to cosmetic surgery is the verse about changing creation:<ref>Safati and Kazemi, "Cosmetic Surgery from the Perspective of Jurisprudence," pp. 30-32.</ref>

====Verse of Changing Creation====
Cosmetic surgery is a type of change in God's creation, and according to the verse "I will command them, and they will change God's creation..."<ref>Quran 4:119.</ref> changing God's creation is one of the temptations and commands of Satan and is forbidden, thus cosmetic surgery is prohibited and *haram*. In contrast, [[Naser Makarem Shirazi]] argues that, firstly, in that case, many actions such as surgery to separate an extra finger, or surgery to separate conjoined twins would have to be considered forbidden, whereas none of them are.<ref>Makarem Shirazi, *Kitab al-Nikah*, vol. 2, p. 133.</ref> Secondly, the verse is related to monotheism and polytheism, and the meaning of "God's creation" in this verse is human nature (*fitrah*); meaning, I will tempt people to change the nature of God into disbelief.<ref>Makarem Shirazi, *Kitab al-Nikah*, vol. 2, p. 133.</ref>

====Narrations====
One of the proofs for the prohibition of cosmetic surgery is the narrations that forbid making changes to the human appearance; such as a narration that Sheikh Saduq transmitted from Imam al-Sadiq (a) in which the Prophet cursed several groups of women; including women who pluck another woman's facial hair, file another woman's teeth, attach one woman's hair to another's, tattoo another woman's face and body, and also the women upon whom these actions are performed.<ref>Sheikh Saduq, *Ma'ani al-Akhbar*, p. 250.</ref> However, some contemporary Shia jurists like [[Sayyid Abulqasim Khoei]] and [[Sayyid Taqi Tabatabai Qomi]] have considered this narration to be weak in terms of its chain of transmission (*sanad*).<ref>Tawhidi, *Misbah al-Fiqahah*, vol. 1, p. 204; Tabatabai Qomi, *Umdat al-Matalib fi al-Ta'liq 'ala al-Makasib*, vol. 1, p. 157.</ref>

According to [[Sheikh Ansari]] and Khoei, the generality of some narrations<ref>For example, see Hurr al-'Amili, *Wasa'il al-Shi'a*, vol. 17, p. 132.</ref> indicates the permissibility of attaching a woman's hair to another woman's head,<ref>Tawhidi, *Misbah al-Fiqahah*, vol. 1, p. 202.</ref> and the implication of combining these two sets of narrations is that such an act is reprehensible (*makruh*), not forbidden (*haram*).<ref>Sheikh Ansari, *Kitab al-Makasib*, vol. 1, pp. 168-169; Tawhidi, *Misbah al-Fiqahah*, vol. 1, p. 203; Ya'qubi Isfahani, *Al-Mawahib fi Tahrir Ahkam al-Makasib*, p. 311.</ref> The other cases mentioned in the narration, according to Sheikh Ansari, given the unity of context and also the narrations that have deemed absolute adornment for women permissible, are also ruled as reprehensible.<ref>Sheikh Ansari, *Kitab al-Makasib*, vol. 1, p. 169.</ref>

====Principle of Prohibition (Asalat al-Hazr)====
Naser Makarem Shirazi, pointing out that it might be thought that cosmetic surgery is problematic based on the impermissibility of making dispositions in God's property, has criticized this view. According to this view, on one hand, cosmetic surgery is a form of disposition of the body—which is God's property—and on the other hand, no permission has been given for this type of disposition; therefore, cosmetic surgery is not permissible.<ref>Makarem Shirazi, *Kitab al-Nikah*, vol. 2, p. 132.</ref>

According to Makarem Shirazi, firstly, considering [[Quran 2:29]],{{Note|"He is the One who created for you all that is on the earth."}} God has created all beings on earth for humanity, and humans can make dispositions in them, unless there is a religious prohibition against such disposition.<ref>Makarem Shirazi, *Kitab al-Nikah*, vol. 2, p. 132.</ref> Secondly, even assuming that everything, including the human body, is God's property and one should not dispose of it without His permission, permission for this disposition has been granted by the Lawgiver according to the religious rule "Everything is lawful for you until you know for certain that it is forbidden."<ref>Kulayni, *Al-Kafi*, vol. 10, p. 542.</ref><ref>Makarem Shirazi, *Kitab al-Nikah*, vol. 2, p. 132; Rajaei al-Musawi, *Minhaj al-Usul*, vol. 2, p. 37.</ref> According to this rule, since we have no knowledge of the prohibition of cosmetic surgery, this act is ruled as permissible and lawful.

==Cosmetic Surgery from the Perspective of a Secondary Ruling==
The secondary ruling regarding cosmetic surgery can be examined in several cases:

===Cosmetic Surgery in Case of Necessity===
According to all contemporary jurists, if there is a necessity and emergency for cosmetic surgery, even if the doctor is a non-*mahram* and of the opposite gender, the operation is permissible.<ref>For example, see Montazeri, *Risala-yi Istifta'at*, vol. 2, p. 352; Makarem Shirazi, *Istifta'at-i Jadid*, vol. 1, p. 479; Khamenei, *Ajwibat al-Istifta'at*, vol. 2, p. 81.</ref> If cosmetic surgery is solely to enhance beauty, it does not reach the level of necessity. Only when it has a reconstructive and therapeutic aspect, such as treating burns or skin tears, or similar cases where there is no other way for physical and mental health, is [[necessity (*idtirar*)]] considered, and it is permissible from a jurisprudential perspective.<ref>Qasemi, *Danshnamah-i Fiqh-i Pizishki*, vol. 2, p. 191; Safati and Kazemi, "Cosmetic Surgery from the Perspective of Jurisprudence," p. 35.</ref> However, Hossein-Ali Montazeri is of the opinion that although cosmetic surgery may not be effective in the patient's physical health, not performing it may lead to an unbearable mental illness.<ref>Montazeri, *Risala-yi Istifta'at*, vol. 3, p. 337.</ref>

===Cosmetic Surgery in Case of Harm===
Jurists such as Sayyid Ruhollah Khomeini,<ref>Qasemi, *Danshnamah-i Fiqh-i Pizishki*, vol. 2, p. 189.</ref> Safi Golpayegani,<ref>Safi Golpayegani, *Istifta'at-i Pizishki*, p. 268.</ref> Makarem Shirazi<ref>["Ruling on Cosmetic Surgery," website of the Information Office of Grand Ayatollah Makarem Shirazi.].</ref> and [[Sayyid Ali Khamenei|Khamenei]]<ref>["Miscellaneous Medical Issues: New Inquiries," website of the Office for the Preservation and Publication of the Works of Grand Ayatollah Khamenei.].</ref> are of the opinion that if cosmetic surgery causes significant harm to the individual, it is not permissible, in accordance with the "No Harm" rule (*la darar*).

==Effects and Consequences==
The effects and consequences that result from cosmetic surgery are as follows:
===Involving Forbidden Looking and Touching===
According to all contemporary Shia jurists, if cosmetic surgery entails looking at and touching a non-*mahram* (for both the patient and the doctor), it is not permissible.<ref>For example, see Khoei, Tabrizi, *Ahkam-i Jami'-i Masa'il-i Pizishki*, p. 368; Safi Golpayegani, *Istifta'at-i Pizishki*, p. 268; Makarem Shirazi, *Istifta'at-i Jadid*, pp. 478-479; Khamenei, *Ajwibat al-Istifta'at*, vol. 2, p. 81.</ref> However, according to jurists, cosmetic surgery by a non-*mahram* doctor is not problematic in the following cases:
* Cosmetic surgery for therapeutic purposes and to repair damaged body parts, such as areas of burns or wounds. Therefore, if this is done solely for beauty, it is not permissible for a non-*mahram* to look at and touch the body.<ref>Khamenei, *Ajwibat al-Istifta'at*, vol. 2, p. 81.</ref>
* The cosmetic surgery is reconstructive and for therapeutic purposes, even if the doctor is not of the same gender.<ref>Montazeri, *Risala-yi Istifta'at*, 1373 SH, vol. 3, pp. 337-338; Makarem Shirazi, *Istifta'at-i Jadid*, p. 479.</ref>
* If the surgery has a therapeutic aspect and its performance is necessary, and a same-gender doctor is available but a different-gender doctor has greater skill in the surgery, then according to jurists like [[Sheikh Jawad Tabrizi]], one can refer to the more skilled different-gender doctor.<ref>Tabrizi, *Sirat al-Najat fi Ajwibat al-Istifta'at*, vol. 7, p. 232.</ref> The basis and documentation for this view is an authentic narration from Abu Hamza al-Thumali transmitted from Imam al-Baqir (a).<ref>Qasemi, *Danshnamah-i Fiqh-i Pizishki*, vol. 2, p. 188.</ref> According to Makarem Shirazi, if there are a sufficient number of male and female doctors, and if there is a fear of danger or harm in not referring to the more skilled doctor, referring to the more skilled doctor, even if they are a non-*mahram*, takes precedence. But if there is no fear of harm or danger, one must refer to a same-gender doctor.<ref>Makarem Shirazi, *Istifta'at-i Jadid*, vol. 2, p. 597.</ref>

===Wudu and Ghusl of the Operated Organ===
Some of the rulings related to *wudu* and *ghusl* of the operated organ are as follows:

====Existence of a Barrier on the Organs of Wudu and Ghusl====
According to Sayyid Abulqasim Khoei, cosmetic surgery is permissible for a person who has no defect or ugliness in their face and undergoes surgery to become more beautiful, but materials that adhere to the skin and prevent water from reaching the body during *wudu* and *ghusl* should not be used.<ref>Khoei, Tabrizi, *Ahkam-i Shar'i-yi Banuvan*, p. 388.</ref> According to Hossein-Ali Montazeri and Sheikh Jawad Tabrizi, if cosmetic surgery requires not performing obligatory acts such as *wudu* and *ghusl* correctly, it should be avoided.<ref>Montazeri, *Risala-yi Istifta'at*, vol. 2, p. 352; Tabrizi, *Sirat al-Najat*, vol. 7, p. 218.</ref>

====Wudu and Ghusl of the Operated Organ====
According to jurists, if the operated area is open and water is not harmful to it, one should perform *wudu* and *ghusl* normally. But if the operated area is covered and water is harmful to it, one must perform ablution over the dressing (*wudu' al-jabirah*).<ref>Khomeini, *Tawdih al-Masa'il*, pp. 42-43; Fazel Lankarani, *Tawdih al-Masa'il*, p. 59; Vahid Khorasani, *Tawdih al-Masa'il*, p. 249.</ref> Also, if the transplanted hair becomes attached to the body and grows, *wudu* and *ghusl* are correct according to Fazel Lankarani and Tabrizi.<ref>Fazel Lankarani, *Ahkam-i Bimaran va Pizishkan*, p. 166; Tabrizi, *Istifta'at-i Jadid*, vol. 2, pp. 42-43.</ref>

===Cosmetic Surgery and Deception (Tadlis)===
Shia jurists, based on narrations, have considered matters such as tattooing the face and reddening a woman's cheeks, creating patterns on her hands and feet, attaching other women's hair to her head, and the like, to result in deception (*tadlis*).<ref>Hilli, *Al-Sara'ir al-Hawi li-Tahrir al-Fatawi*, vol. 2, p. 216.</ref> Therefore, according to some researchers, if one of the spouses in a marriage undergoes cosmetic surgery with the intent to deceive the other party and without their knowledge to cover up an apparent defect, deception occurs.<ref>Shariati Sarabi, *Barrasi-yi Fiqhi-Huquqi-yi Hukm-i A'mal-i Jarrahi-yi Ziba'i dar Nikah*, p. 95.</ref>

A group of jurists, by distinguishing between permanent beautifications and those that are short-lived,<ref>Sabzevari, *Muhadhdhab al-Ahkam*, vol. 25, p. 143; Meshkini, *Mustalahat al-Fiqh*, p. 133.</ref> have only considered that which causes non-permanent beauty to be a cause of deception.<ref>Meshkini, *Mustalahat al-Fiqh*, p. 133.</ref> Some researchers have also stated such a distinction regarding cosmetic surgery and believe that only those cosmetic surgeries that have a temporary and non-permanent effect are instances of deception.<ref>Rahimi and Mohebpour, "Instances of Tadlis in Surgeries...," pp. 75-77.</ref>

==Sunni Jurisprudence==
Many Sunni jurists have differentiated between two types of surgery; surgery purely for beauty, and cosmetic surgery for treatment or reconstruction.<ref>Rashid 'Awda, "'Amaliyyat Tajmil al-Wajh al-Tahsiniyya," p. 8.</ref>

===Therapeutic Cosmetic Surgery===
Almost all Sunni jurists have permitted therapeutic-reconstructive cosmetic surgery that is necessary for a person's health.<ref>Nawawi, *Sharh Sahih Muslim*, vol. 14, p. 107; Al-Fawzan, *Al-Jiraha al-Tajmiliyya*, p. 96.</ref> These jurists have also resorted to the "No Harm" rule (*la darar*) for the permissibility of this act under such conditions; with the explanation that the persistence of a defect or a defective organ in the body causes harm, so according to the "No Harm and No Harming" principle, its removal is permissible.<ref>Al-Mahamid, "Idhn al-Zawj fi al-'Amaliyyat al-Tajmiliyya al-Tahsiniyya," p. 317.</ref>

===Surgery Solely for Beauty===
Regarding surgery solely for the purpose of beauty, there are two views in Sunni jurisprudence;<ref>Rashid 'Awda, "'Amaliyyat Tajmil al-Wajh al-Tahsiniyya," p. 11.</ref> a group of these jurists considers such surgery to be absolutely forbidden (*haram*).<ref>Rashid 'Awda, "'Amaliyyat Tajmil al-Wajh al-Tahsiniyya," p. 11.</ref> and they have cited several reasons for this view:
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# [[Verse prohibiting the changing of divine creation]].<ref>Quran 4:119; Rashid 'Awda, "'Amaliyyat Tajmil al-Wajh al-Tahsiniyya," p. 11.</ref>
# Narrations in which matters such as "plucking facial hair," "attaching human hair to another person's head," "tattooing," "filing teeth," and similar actions done purely for beauty are considered changing God's creation, and the doer of these actions has been cursed.<ref>For example, see Bukhari, *Sahih al-Bukhari*, vol. 7, pp. 164-166.</ref> According to these jurists, the word "curse" in these narrations indicates prohibition.<ref>Al-Mahamid, "Idhn al-Zawj fi al-'Amaliyyat al-Tajmiliyya al-Tahsiniyya," p. 317.</ref>
# Analogy (*Qiyas*): Because the comprehensive cause between "plucking facial hair," "attaching human hair to another person's head," and the like is "seeking beauty" and "changing God's creation," and this comprehensive aspect also exists in surgery performed solely for beauty.<ref>Al-Mukhtar al-Shinqiti, *Ahkam al-Jiraha al-Tibbiyya wa al-Athar al-Mutarattiba 'Alayha*, p. 195; Rashid 'Awda, "'Amaliyyat Tajmil al-Wajh al-Tahsiniyya," p. 12.</ref>
# [[Imitation of the Disbelievers (*Tashabbuh bi al-Kuffar*)]]: In line with many narrations that forbid imitating and following the disbelievers,<ref>Bukhari, *Sahih al-Bukhari*, vol. 4, p. 170; Ibn Taymiyyah, *Iqtida' al-Sirat al-Mustaqim li-Mukhalafat Ashab al-Jahim*, vol. 1, p. 170.</ref> cosmetic surgery is considered one of the most famous manifestations of imitating the disbelievers and has been prohibited.<ref>Al-Fawzan, *Al-Jiraha al-Tajmiliyya*, p. 77.</ref>
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Another group of Sunni jurists has opted for a detailed distinction and has only forbidden those cosmetic surgeries that are intended for deception (*tadlis*) and enticement.<ref>Rashid 'Awda, "'Amaliyyat Tajmil al-Wajh al-Tahsiniyya," p. 12.</ref>

==Study Resources==
{{Main|Cosmetic Surgery (Study Resources)}}
* The book "*Al-Jiraha al-Tajmiliyya: 'Ard Tibbi wa Dirasa Fiqhiyya Mufassala*" by Dr. Salih ibn Muhammad ibn Salih Al-Fawzan, a professor at King Saud University in Saudi Arabia, which examines the jurisprudential ruling of each cosmetic surgery performed on the skin, hair, bone, teeth, etc., independently and argues that one cannot solely rely on general rules and existing fatwas about cosmetic surgery.
* The book "*Ahkam al-Jiraha al-Tibbiyya wa al-Athar al-Mutarattiba 'Alayha*" by Muhammad ibn Muhammad Al-Mukhtar al-Shinqiti, which contains the jurisprudential rulings of medical surgery based on the Quran, Sunnah, consensus, reason, and analogy. The author dedicates a section of this book to examining the jurisprudential ruling on cosmetic surgery.
* The book "*Barrasi-yi Fiqhi va Huquqi-yi Hukm-i A'mal-i Jarrahi-yi Ziba'i dar Nikah*" (A Jurisprudential and Legal Study of the Ruling of Cosmetic Surgeries in Marriage) by Farnoush Shariati Sarabi, written in Persian in 129 pages. In three chapters, the author examines the ruling on cosmetic surgery in marriage from the perspective of Shia jurisprudence and law.

==Footnotes==
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[[fa:جراحی زیبایی]]
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